Stigma, passive institutions, and outdated laws: Barriers for survivors of sexual violence in the region

Following the release of three million documents linked to American financier and sex offender Jeffrey Epstein, the attention of both global and regional publics has turned to the issue of sexual violence and harassment. More than 50 percent of the female population in the Western Balkans has experienced some form of sexual violence, interlocutors told Kosovo Online. Despite awareness-raising programs, stigma and condemnation remain widespread. Inaction, lack of trust in institutions, and inadequate laws, they add, are fundamental obstacles to achieving justice and holding perpetrators accountable.

Written by: Jelena Novakov

When reporting abuse and filing complaints, women across the Western Balkans face unclear and confusing definitions of rape, as well as inadequate legislation. Under Serbian law, marital rape is not defined as a separate criminal offense and is recognized only within the framework of the use of physical force or threats. Last year’s proposal to introduce a new criminal offense—sexual intercourse without consent—raised concern among activists, as it was presented as a “less severe form of rape.”
In Kosovo, marital rape likewise cannot be prosecuted as a distinct offense, while in North Macedonia it is prosecutable only in cases involving physical force or threats.
Older women are most often affected by this form of sexual violence, interlocutors note, while younger women are more frequently exposed to abuse by men in positions of authority, including within the education system. Girls most commonly suffer abuse by their peers. At the same time, risk factors increase for women from LGBTQ+ and minority communities, women facing economic hardship, and those who have previously experienced abuse.
Across the Western Balkans, dozens of Telegram groups with several hundred thousand members have been identified, where revenge pornography was shared, including content involving girls, teenagers, partners, mothers, and sisters. In most countries in the region, however, revenge pornography is not clearly defined in law, and the sharing of intimate content—currently addressed under provisions on unauthorized photographing or recording—is rarely prosecuted.
Trust in institutions across the region is extremely low. Police officers often approach survivors inappropriately, resulting in secondary victimization and a wide gap between reported and prosecuted cases. In some instances, interlocutors say, police and prosecutors actively discourage survivors from filing reports by threatening counterclaims for alleged false reporting of rape.
Beyond legislation and institutional conduct, activists stress the need to change social attitudes and improve education about what constitutes sexual violence and who most often poses a risk to potential victims. Contrary to the common belief that perpetrators are typically strangers, statistics show that they are most often family members, partners, or men from the victims’ close surroundings.
Social expectations, the trivialization of harassment, and gender-based roles further reduce reporting while increasing stigma and condemnation of survivors.
Legal Definitions Do Not Reflect Reality
In Serbia, around 100 cases of rape are reported annually, said Sanja Pavlovic of the Autonomous Women’s Center, clarifying that this figure includes only cases in which investigations were launched; the total number of reports dismissed at the outset is unknown.
“When we talk about sexual violence in Serbia—specifically the crime of rape—the statistics are bleak, even shameful. We have fewer than 100 reports per year, and that number more than halves when it comes to convictions. There is mutual distrust: women do not trust institutions, and institutions do not trust women. The responsibility lies with institutions to take steps so women feel encouraged to report and have greater trust,” Pavlovic told Kosovo Online.

She emphasized that perpetrators are most often men known to the victim—including spouses—and that marital rape remains a taboo topic.
Legal reform is needed, Pavlovic added, because the current definition of rape is outdated and limited to force and threats, despite the fact that survivors often experience “freezing” or paralysis and are unable to resist—yet institutions demand proof of resistance.
Trust in institutions is particularly crucial, she said, as survivors are often discouraged from reporting and told they lack evidence or risk countercharges for false reporting.
Perpetrators Often Known to Victims
Adelina Berisha from the Kosovo Women’s Network said perpetrators are most often men known to the victim, and that over 70 percent of reported cases involve girls. She stressed the need to develop rape crisis centers and referral services to meet constitutional obligations, noting progress in recognizing and supporting survivors of wartime sexual violence.
Blaming survivors and stigma, Berisha said, lead to re-victimization and violations of survivors’ rights and dignity. Greater community engagement, public awareness campaigns, education on consent and gender equality, and the involvement of men, community leaders, and media are essential to creating safer environments for reporting.
She added that among minority communities in Kosovo, Serbian women most often recognize and report violence, while reporting rates are lower among Roma, Ashkali, and Egyptian women.
Low Reporting Rates
Ines Alovic Mihajlovic, Program Manager at the NGO Center for Advocacy of Democratic Culture (ACDC) in North Mitrovica, said that 54 percent of women in Kosovo have experienced sexual violence or harassment, but far fewer cases are reported due to deep distrust in institutions. She noted a decrease in incidents in northern Kosovo following new policing programs and the return of Serbian officials to institutions, though problems persist.
Women south of the Ibar River, she said, have faced sexual harassment for much longer, while incidents in the north increased after the withdrawal from institutions in 2022.

Distrust of Police
In northern Kosovo, distrust of police is pronounced, with survivors often experiencing secondary victimization. This problem, Aljovic Mihajlovic noted, is widespread across the Balkans.
Women live in patriarchal societies with numerous barriers, she said, and sexual violence is particularly underreported. Research shows that while 54 percent of women experienced harassment, only about 14 percent reported it—highlighting the scale of silence driven by social constraints.
Gender Roles and Sexual Violence
Ana Avramovska Nuskova, Project Coordinator at the Executive Office of North Macedonia’s National Network against Violence against Women and Domestic Violence, said one in three women and girls in the country has experienced sexual harassment or violence, while far fewer cases are reported. Social pressure, lack of education, and distrust in institutions are key reasons.
She stressed that patriarchal norms and gender roles foster the false belief that women are obliged to engage in sexual relations with partners, hindering recognition of abuse. Despite legal recognition of additional forms of violence after ratification of the Istanbul Convention, reporting rates remain at just two to three percent, according to OSCE research.

Awareness-raising—starting from early education—strong institutions, trained professionals, and functional services such as shelters, SOS helplines, and counseling centers are essential, she said. Trust in institutions remains extremely low, making sensitive, informed police responses critical.
Support Lines for Survivors
Survivors seeking help can contact the following SOS numbers:
•    Serbia: Autonomous Women’s Center – 0800 100 007
•    Kosovo: Office for Victim Advocacy and Assistance – 0800 111 12
•    North Macedonia: National Women’s Helpline – 15315